After the Revolutionary War Essay Example for Free

After the Revolutionary War Essay After the Revolutionary War, many Americans realized that the government established by the Articles of Confederation was not working. America needed a new form of government. It had to be strong enough to maintain national unity over a large geographic area, but not so strong as to become a tyranny. Unable to find an exact model in history to fit Americas unique situation, delegates met at Philadelphia in 1787 to create their own solution to the problem. Their creation was the United States Constitution. Before the Constitution could become the supreme law of the land, it had to be ratified or approved by at least nine of the thirteen states. When the delegates to the Philadelphia Convention signed the Constitution on September 17, 1787, they knew ratification would not be easy. Many people were bitterly opposed to the proposed new system of government. A public debate soon erupted in each of the states over whether the new Constitution should be accepted. More important, it was a crucial debate on the future of the United States. The Federalist Papers Nowhere was the furor over the proposed Constitution more intense than in New York. Within days after it was signed, the Constitution became the subject of widespread criticism in the New York newspapers. Many commentators charged that the Constitution diminished the rights Americans had won in the Revolution. Fearful that the cause for the Constitution might be lost in his home state, Alexander Hamilton devised a plan to write a series of letters or essays rebutting the critics. It is not surprising that Hamilton, a brilliant lawyer, came forward at this moment to defend the new Constitution. At Philadelphia, he was the only New Yorker to have signed the Constitution. The other New York delegates had angrily left the Convention convinced that the rights of the people were being abandoned. Hamilton himself was very much in favor of strengthening the central government. Hamilton’s Constitution would have called for a president elected for life with the power to appoint state governors. Hamilton soon backed away from these ideas, and decided that the Constitution, as written, was the best one possible. Hamilton published his first essay in the New York Independent Journal on October 27, 1787. He signed the articles with the Roman name Publius. (The use of pseudonyms by writers on public affairs was a common practice.) Hamilton soon recruited two others, James Madison and John Jay, to contribute essays to the series. They also used the pseudonym Publius. James Madison, sometimes called the Father of the Constitution, had played a major role during the Philadelphia Convention. As a delegate from Virginia, he participated actively in the debates. He also kept detailed notes of the proceedings and drafted much of the Constitution. Unlike Hamilton and Madison, John Jay of New York had not been a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. A judge and diplomat, he was serving as secretary of foreign affairs in the national government. Between October 1787 and August 1788, Publius wrote 85 essays in several New York newspapers. Hamilton wrote over 60 percent of these essays and helped with the writing of others. Madison probably wrote about a third of them with Jay composing the rest. The essays had an immediate impact on the ratification debate in New York and in the other states. The demand for reprints was so great that one New York newspaper publisher printed the essays together in two volumes entitled The Federalist, A Collection of Essays, written in favor of the New Constitution, By a Citizen of New York. By this time the identity of Publius, never a well-kept secret, was pretty well known. The Federalist, also called The Federalist Papers, has served two very different purposes in American history. The 85 essays succeeded by helping to persuade doubtful New Yorkers to ratify the Constitution. Today, The Federalist Papers helps us to more clearly understand what the writers of the Constitution had in mind when they drafted that amazing document 200 years ago.

Translation Literary Translation Essay Example for Free

Translation Literary Translation Essay Preface This book has been five years in the writing. Sections of it have twice been stolen during travel and have been rewritten, hopeniliy better than the first time the fond hope of ail writers who have had their MSS lost, stolen or betrayed. Its progress has been further interrupted by requests for papers for conferences; four of these papers have been incorporated; others, listed in the bibliography are too specialised for inclusion here. It is not a conventional textbook. Instead of offering, as originally planned, texts in various languages for you to translate, I have supplied in the appendices examples of translational text analyses, translations with commentaries and translation criticism. They are intended to be helpful illustrations of many points made in the book, and models for you to react against when you do these three stimulating types of exercise. If the book has a unifying element, it is the desire to be useful to the translator, Its various theories are only generalisations of translation practices. The points I make are for you to endorse or to reject, or simply think about. The special terms I use are explained in the text and in the glossary. I hope you will read this book in conjunction with its predecessor, Approaches to Translation, of which it is in many respects an expansion as well as a revision; in particular, the treatment of institutional terms and of metalanguage is more extensive in the earlier than in this book. I dislike repeating myself writing or speaking, and for this reason I have reproduced say the paper on case grammar, about which at present I havent much more to say, and which isnt easily come by. This book is not written by a scholar, I once published a controversial piece on Corneilles Horace in French Studies, and was encouraged to work for a doctorate, but there was too much in the making that didnt interest me, so 1 gave up. And a German professor refused to review Approaches because it had so many mistakes in the bibliography; which is regrettable (he was asked to point them out, but refused; later, he changed his mind and reviewed the book), but academic detail is not the essential of that or this book either. I am somewhat of a itteralist, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think that words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic and pragmatic reasons for doing so, which is more often than not, except in grey texts. But that doesnt mean, xt xn IBEFACh as Alex Brothenon (Amsterdam) has disparagingly written without evidence, that I believe in the * absolute primacy of the word1. There are no absolutes in translation, everything is conditional, any principle (e. g.accuracy) may be in opposition to another (e. g, economy) or at least there may be tension between them. Much as at times I should like to get rid of the two bugbears of translation, the dear old context and the dear old readership, alas, we never can. lean only go as far as saying that some words in a text are far less context-bound than others; and that some readerships (say of a set of instructions, of which the readership is the reason for its existence) are more important than others (say a lyric, where the poet and his translator) may only be writing for himself. Again when Halliday writes that language is entirely a social phenomenon and consequently collapses or conflates Biihlers expressive and appellative functions of language into the interpersonal function, stating that there is no distinction between the first two functions in language, I can only say that this is a matter of beliefor philosophy as the expression of belief, and that I disagree. But all this is to some extent a matter of emphasis (and reaction) rather than (diametrical) opposition. The single word is getting swamped in the discourse and the individual in the mass of society -1 am trying to reinstate them both, to redress the balance. If people express themselves individually in a certain type of text, translators must also express themselves individually, even if they are told they are only reacting to, and therefore conforming with, social discourse conventions of the time. Writing a book about translation, 1 am aware that this is a new profession, though an old practice, and that the body of knowledge and of assumptions that exists about translation is tentative, often controversial and fluctuating. This book is intended to be reasonably comprehensive, that is, to discuss most of the issues and problems that come up in translating. (In this aim, at least, the book is original. ) In spite of the controversial nature of several of its chapters, it is therefore designed as a kind of reference book for translators. However, some of the shorter pieces in Chapter 18 are inadequate and can only offer you a few pointers. I hope to expand the book (my last one on translation) for a second edition, and I would welcome suggestions for its improvement,  Acknowledgements I warmly thank Pauline Newmark, Elizabeth Newmark and Matthew Newmark, whom I have consulted so frequently; Vaughan James, who has helped so much at every stage; Vera North, who coped so superbly with the ins and outs of my handwriting; Mary FitzGerald; Sheila Silcock; Margaret Rogers, Louise Hurren; Mary Harrison; Simon Chau, Hans Lindquist, Rene Dirben, Robin Trew, Harold Leyrer, David Harvey. Contents Preface Acknowledgements xi xii Parti 1 2. Principles Introduction The Analysis of a Text Reading the text The intention of the text The intention of the translator Text styles The readership Stylistic scales Attitude Setting The quality of the writing Connotations and denotations The last reading Conclusion 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 15 15 16 16 17 17 19 19 19 20 22 23 3 The Process of Translation Introduction The relation of translating ro translation theory The approach. The textual level The referential level v  CONTENTS The cohesive level The level of naturalness Combining the four levels The unit of translating The translation of texts The translation of proper names Revision Conclusion 23 24 29 30 32 35 36 37 Language Functions, Text-categories and Text-types The expressive function The informative function The vocative function The aesthetic function The pharic function The metalingual function Translation Methods Introduction The methods Comments on the methods Equivalent effect . Methods and Lext-categories Translating Other methods 39 39 40 41 42 43 43 45 45 45 47 48 50 51 52 The Unit of Translation and Discourse Analysis Introduction Coherence Titles Dialogue cohesion Punctuation Sound-effects Cohesion Referential synonyms Enumerators Other connectives Functional sentence perspective Contrasts The lower units of translation Conclusion 54 54 55 56 57 58 58 59 59 60 60 60 63 65 66. CONTENTS vii  68 68 69 70 72 73 73 74 74 75 75 76 77 77 78 80 81 81 82 82 83 83 84 84 85 88 89 90 90 90 90 90 90 91 91 94 95 % 96 97 97 7 Literal Translation Introduction Varieties of close translation The translation of poetry Faithful and false friends Words in their context Elegant variations Back-translation of text (BTT) Accepted translation Constraints on literal translation Natural translation Re-creative translation Literary translation The sub-text The notion of theKno-equivalent1 word The role of context 8 The Other Translation Procedures Transference Naturalisation Cultural equivalent Functional equivalent Descriptive equivalent Synonymy Through-translation Shifts or transpositions Modulation Recognised translation Translation label Compensation Componential analysis Reduction and expansion Paraphrase Other procedures Couplets Notes, additions, glosses 9 Translation and Culture Definitions Cultural categories General considerations Ecology Material culture Vltl CONTENTS Social culture Social organisation political and administrative Gestures and habits Summary of procedures 98 99 102 103 10. The Translation of Metaphors Definitions Translating metaphors Types of metaphor 104 106 106 106 11 The Use of Componeniial Analysis in Translation Introduction Lexical words Cultural words Synonyms Sets and series Conceptual terms Neologisms Words as myths Conclusion U4 114 317 119 120 121 121 122 123 123 12 The Application of Case Grammar to Translation Introduction The translation of missing verbs, i. e. verbalforce The translation of case-gaps Various types of case-partner Contrast and choice in translation Some related issues Case partners of adjectives and nouns A remark on Tesniere Conclusion. 125 125 126 129 132 134 135 136 138 138 13 The Translation of Neologisms Introduction Old words with new senses New coinages Derived words Abbreviations Collocations Eponyms Phrasai words 140 140 141 142 143 145 145 146 147 CONTENTS }X Transferred words Acronyms Pseudo-neologisms The creation of neologisms A frame of reference for the translation of neologisms 147 148 148 149 150 14 Technical Translation Introduction Technical style Terms Varieties of technical style Technical and descriptive terms Beginning technical translation Translation method The title Going through the text Conclusion Appendix; sampletest. 151 151 151 152 152 153 154 L55 156* 158 IfrO 161 15 The Translation of Serious Literature and Authoritative Statements Introduction Poetry The short story/novel Drama Conclusion 162 162 162 170 172 173 16 Reference Boohs and their Uses; Tracing theUnfindable Word Introduction Resources [ Unfindables words 174 174 175 176 17 Translation Criticism Introduction Planofcriticism Text analysts The translators purpose Comparing the translation with the original The evaluation of the translation The translations future Marking a translation Quality in translation. 184 184 186 186 186 ! 87 188 189 189 192 X CONTENTS 18 Shorter Items Words and context The translation of dialect You and the computer Function and description The translation of eponyms and acronyms Familiar alternative terms When and how to improve a text Collocations The translation of proper names The translation of puns  ¦ The translation of weights, measures, quantities and currencies Ambiguity 193 193 194 195 198 198 201 204 212 214 217 217 218 221 225 19 20 Revision Hints for Exams and Deadlines By Way of a Conclusion Part II Methods. Introductory note Test 1 Tower needs clear eyes1, The Economist Text 2 Vppcr gastroint^imal endoscopy1, British Medical Journal Text 3 Brideshead Revisited (Waugh) Text 4 4Une certaine idee de la France (De Gaulle) Text 5 4Le Parti Socialiste (Source unknown) Text 6 Ala Recherche du Temps Perdu (Proust) Text 7 Presentation dun cas de toxoplasmose, Bordeaux Medical Text 8 Dialysebehandlung bei akutem Nierenversagen, Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrifi Text 9 Alexander von Humboldt (Hein) Text 10 VAdoraticm (BoreL) Text 11 Die Blasse Anna (Boll) Text 12 La SocUti Francaise (Dupeux) Text 13 ZumWohlealler\SC,4Z^. 229 231 234 238 242 245 248 250 254 259 264 267 272 277 Glossary Abbreviations Medical terminology BihHograpky Name index Subject index 282 286 288 289 291 292 PART I Principles Figures appear in Part I as follows: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 The dynamics of translation A functional theory of language Language functions, text-categories and text-types The Translation of metaphor Scalar diagrams Equation diagram Matrix diagram Parallel tree diagram  ¦ * 20 40 105 116 116 117 117 CHAPTER 1 Introduction. My purpose in this book is to offer a course in translation principles and methodology for final-year-degree and post-graduate classes as well as for autodidacts and home learners. Further, I have in mind that I am addressing non-English as well as English students, and I will provide some appropriate English texts and examples to work on. 1 shall assume that you, the reader, are learning to translate into your language of habitual use, since that is the only way you can translate naturally, accurately and with maximum effectiveness. In fact, however, most translators do translate out of theii own language (service translation) and contribute greatly to many peoples hilarity in the process. Further, I shall assume that you have a degree-level reading and comprehension ability in one foreign language and a particular interest in one of the three main areas of translation: (a) science and technology, (b) social, economic and/or political topics and institutions, and (c) literary and philosophical works. Normally, only (a) and (b) provide a salary; (c) is free-lance work. Bear in mind, however, that knowing a foreign language and your subject is not as important as being sensitive to language and being competent to write your own language dexterously, clearly, economically and resourcefully. Experience with translationese, for example, Strauss Opus 29 stands under the star of Bierbaum who in his lyric poems attempted to lie in the echoes of the German love poetry with ihe folk song and with the impressionistic changes, Opus 29 tekt im Zekhen Bkrboums, der als Lyriker versuchtet Nachklange des Mintwsangs mil dem Volkslied und mit impressicmistischen XPendungen zu verknupfen. (Record sleeve note) shows that a good writer can often avoid not only errors of usage but mistakes of fact and language simply by applying his common sense and showing sensitivity to language. Being good at writing has little to do with being good at essays, or at English 1 as you may have learned it at school. It means being able to use the 3 4 PRINCIPLES  appropriate words in the appropriate order for the obiect or process you are attempting to describe; continuously trying to improve your writing (a translation is never finished); and increasing your own English vocabulary co-extensively with your knowledge of new facts and new foreign-language words. And it means making flexible use of the abundant grammatical resources of your language, which are enriched by contemporary speech. It is something which, like translation, you can learn: you are not born a good writer; you do not have to be one now; you have to be determined to become one, to relate new experience to fresh language. Finallyj it means having a sense of order and pertinence learning to construct a specific {gezieh, purposeful) beginning, body and conclusion for your subject: a beginning that defines and sets the subject out; a body1 that gives and illustrates the pros and cons of the argument; a conclusion that states your own verdict — and all without irrelevance. A translator has to have a flair and a feel for his own language. There is nothing mystical about this sixth sense, but it is compounded of intelligence, sensitivity and intuition, as well as of knowledge. This sixth sense, which often comes into play (joue) during a final revision, tells you when to translate literally, and also, instinctively, perhaps once in a hundred or three hundred words, when to break all the rules of translation, when to translate malheur by catastrophe* in a seventeenth-centurv text, I cannot make you into a good translator; I cannot cause you to write well. The best I can do is to suggest to you some general guidelines for translating. I shall propose a way of analysing the source language text; I shall discuss the two basic translation methods; and I shall set out the various procedures for handling texts, sentences and other units. I shall at times discuss the relation between meaning, language, culture and translation. By offering plenty of examples I hope to provide enough practice for you to improve your performance as a translator. 9 The trmhvthe facts of the matter) SL writer 2 SL norms TEXT 10 Translator 5 TL relationship 6 TL norms 3 SL culture 4 SL setting and tradition Figure I. The dynamics of translation 7 TL culture 8 TL setting and tradition INTRODUCTION  5 What is translation? Often, though not by any means always, it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. Common sense tells us that this ought to be simple, as one ought to be able to say something as well in one language as in another. On the other hand, you may see it as complicated, artificial and fraudulent, since by using another language you are pretending to be someone you are not. Hence in many types of text (legal, administrative, dialect, local, cultural) the temptation is to transfer as many SL (Source Language) words to the TL (Target Language) as possible. The pity is, as Mounin wrote, that the translation cannot simply reproduce, or be, the original. And since this is so, the first business of the translator is to translate. A texi may therefore be pulled in ten different directions, as follows: (1) The individual style or idiolect of the SL author. When should it be (a) preserved, (b) normalised? (2) The conventional grammatical and lexical usage for this type of text, depending on the topic and the situation. (3) Content items referring specifically to the SL, or third language (i. e, not SL or TL) cultures. (4) The typical format of a text in a book, periodical, newspaper, etc. , as influenced by tradition at the time. (5) The expectations of the putative readership, bearing in mind their estimated knowledge of the topic and the style of language they use, expressed in terms of the largest common factor, since one should not translate down (or up) to the readership, (6), (7), (8) As for 2,3 and 4 respectively, but related to the TL, (9) What is being described or reported, ascertained or verified (the referential truth), where possible independently of the SL text and the expectations of the readership. (10) The views and prejudices of the translator, which may be personal and subjective, or may be social and cultural, involving the translators group loyalty factor*, which may reflect the national, political, ethnic, religious, social class, sex, etc. assumptions of the translator. Needless to say, there are many other tensions in translations, for example between sound and sense, emphasis (word order) and naturalness (grammar), the figurative and the literal, neatness and comprehensiveness, concision and accuracy. Figure 1 shows how many opposing forces pull the translation activity {Vactivitti traduisante) in opposite directions. The diagram is not complete. There is often a tension between intrinsic and communicative, or, if you like, between semantic and pragmatic meaning. When do you translate Ilfaitfroid as Its cold1 and when as Im cold, Tm freezing1, Tm so cold, etc,, when that is what it means in the context? All of which suggests that translation is impossible. Which is not so. Why a book of this sort? Because I think there is a body of knowledge about translation which, if applied to solving translation problems, can contribute to a translators training. Translation as a profession practised in international organi- 6 PRINCIPLES sations, government departments, public companies and translation agencies (now often called translation companies) began only about thirty years ago; even now, the idea that ail languages (there are 4000) are of equal value and importance, and that everyone has a right to speak and write his own language, whether it is a national or a minority language (most countries are at least *bilinguaP) is not generally recognised. Translation as a profession has to be seen as a collaborative process between translators, revisers, terminologists, often writers and clients (literary works have to be checked by a second native TL reviser and desirably a native SL speaker), where one works towards a general agreement. Nevertheless, finally, only one person can be responsible for one piece or section of translation; it must have the stamp of one style. The principle with which this book starts is that everything without exception is translatable; the translator cannot afford the luxury of saying that something cannot be translated, Danila Seleskovitch, a brilliant interpreter and writer, has said: Everything said in one language can be expressed in another on condition that the two languages belong to cultures that have reached a comparable degree of development/ The condition she makes is false and misleading. Translation is an instrument of education as well as of truth precisely because it has to reach readers whose cultural and educational level is different from, and often lower or earlier, than, that of the readers of the original one has in mind computer technology for Xhosas. Foreign1 communities have their own language structures and their own cultures, foreign individuals have their own way of thinking and therefore of expressing themselves, but all these can be explained, and as a last resort the explanation is the translation. No language, no culture is so primitive that it cannot embrace the terms and the concepts of, say, computer technology or plainsong, But such a translation is a longer process if it is in a language whose culture does not include computer technology. If it is to cover ail the points in the source language text, it requires greater space in the target language text. There-fore, whilst translation is always possible, it may for various reasons not have the same impact as the original. Translation has its own excitement, its own interest. A satisfactory translation is always possible, but a good translator is never satisfied with it. It can usually be improved. There is no such thing as a perfect, ideal or ^correct translation, A translator is always trying to extend his knowledge and improve his means of expression; he is always pursuing facts and words. He works on four levels: translation is first a science, which entails the knowledge and verification of the facts and the larguage that describes them- here, what is wrong, mistakes of truth, can be identified; secondly, it is a skill, which calls for appropriate language and acceptable usage; thirdly, an art, which distinguishes good from undistinguished writing and is the creative, the intuitive, sometimes the inspired, level of the translation; lastly, a matter of taste, where argument ceases, preferences are expressed, and the variety of meritorious translations is the reflection of individual differences. Whilst accepting that a few good translators (like a few good actors) are INTRODUCTION 7 naturals, I suggest that the practical demands on translators are so wide, and the subject still so wrapped up in pointless arguments about its feasibility, that it would benefit students of translation and would-be translators to follow a course based on a wide variety of texts and examples. This book claims to be useful, not essential. It attempts to set up a framework of reference for an activity that serves as a means of communication, a transmitter of culture, a technique (one of many, to be used with discretion) of language learning, and a source of personal pleasure. As a means of communication, translation is used for multilingual notices, which have at last appeared increasingly conspicuously in public places; for instructions issued by exporting companies; for tourist publicity, where it is too often produced from the native into the foreign language by natives as a matter of national pride; for official documents,  such as treaties and contracts; for reports, papers, articles, correspondence? textbooks to convey information, advice and recommendations for every branch of knowledge. Its volume has increased with the rise of the mass media, the increase in the number of independent countries, and the growing recognition of the importance of linguistic minorities in all the countries of the world. Its importance is highlighted by the mistranslation of the Japanese telegram sent to Washington just before the bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, when mokasuiu was allegedly translated as ignored instead of considered, and by the ambiguity in UN Resolution 242, where the withdrawal from occupied territories was translated as le retrait des tmitoires occupes, and therefore as a reference to all of the occupied territory to be evacuated by the Israelis. Translation has been instrumental in transmitting culture, sometimes under unequal conditions responsible for distorted and biased translations, ever since countries and languages have been in contact with each other. Thus the Romans pillaged* Greek culture; the Toledo School transferred Arabic and Greek learning to Europe; and up to the nineteenth century European culture was drawing heavily on Latin and Greek translations. In the nineteenth century German culture was absorbing Shakespeare, In this century a centrifugal world literature has appeared, consisting of the work of a small number of international* writers (Greene, Bellow, Solzhenitsyn, Boll, Grass, Moravia, Murdoch, Lessing, amongst those still living, succeeding Mann, Brecht, Kafka, Mauriac, Valery, etc. )* which is translated into most national and many regional languages. Unfortunately there is no corresponding centripetal cultural movement from regional or peripheral authors. That translation is not merely a transmitter of culture, but also of the-truth, a force for progress, could be instanced by following the course of resistance to Bible translation and the preservation of Latin as a superior language of the elect, with a consequent disincentive to translating between other languages. As a technique for learning foreign languages, translation is a two-edged instrument: it has the special purpose of demonstrating the learners knowledge of the foreign language, either as a form of control or to exercise his intelligence in order to develop his competence. This is its strong point in foreign-language classes, which has to be sharply distinguished from its normal use in transferring meanings and conveying messages. The translation done in schools, which as a 8 PRINCIPLES  discipline is unfortunately usually taken for granted and rarely discussed, often encourages absurd, stilted renderings, particularly of colloquial passages including proper names and institutional terms (absurdly encouraged by dictionary mistranslations such as Giacopo for James1 and Siaatsrat for Trivy Councillor). Even a sentence such as: Quune maillc $auiat parfois a ce nssu de perfection auquel Brigitte Finn travailinit uvec une vigilance de toutes les seamdes, detail dans Yordre et elle sen consolait pourvu que cefut sans temotn. Mauriac, l.a Phanstenne^ might produce something like this from a sixth-former: That a stitch should sometimes break in that tissue of perfection at which Brigitte Pian was working with a vigilance to which she devoted every second, this was in order and she consoled herself for it provided it was without witness, which proves that each word construction is understood, where a more likely reading would be: If Brigitte Pian sometimes dropped a stitch in the admirable material she was working on with such unremitting vigilance, it was in the natural order of things and she found consolation for it, provided she had no witnesses. A translator, perhaps more than any other practitioner of a profession, is continually faced with choices, for instance when he has to translate words denoting quality, the words of the mental world (adjectives, adverbs, adjectival nouns, e. g. good, well*, goodness), rather than objects or events. In making his choice, he is intuitively or consciously following a theory of translation, just as any teacher of grammar teaches a theory of linguistics. La traduction appelle une theorie en acte, Jean-Rene Ladmiral has written. Translation calls on a theory in action; the translator reviews the criteria for the various options before he makes his selection as a procedure in his translating activity. The personal pleasure derived from translation is the excitement of trying to solve a thousand small problems in the context of a large one. Mystery, jigsaw, game, kaleidoscope, maze, puzzle, see-saw, juggling- these metaphors capture the play1 element of translation without its seriousness. (But pleasure lies in play rather than i 1 seriousness. ) The chase after words and facts is unremitting and requires imagination. There is an exceptional attraction in the search for the right word, just out of reach, the semantic gap between two languages that one scours Roget to fill. The relief of finding it, the smirk* after hitting on the right word when others are still floundering? is an acute reward, out of proportion and out of perspective to the satisfaction of filling in the whole picture, but more concrete. The quality of pleasure reflects the constant tension between sentence and word. You may have heard of a relatively new polytechnic/university subject called Translation Theory (Translatology1 in Canada, Traductologia in Spain, (Iter-INTRODUCTION 9 setzungswissenschaft in German-speaking countries, Translation Studies in the Netherlands and Belgium); this book is intended to introduce it to you. In a narrow sense, translation theory is concerned with the translation method appropriately used for a certain type of text, and it is therefore dependent on a functional theory of language. However, in a wider sense, translation theory is the body of knowledge that we have about translating, extending from general principles to guidelines, suggestions and hints. (The only rule I know is the equal frequency rule, viz, that corresponding words, where they exist metaphors, collocations, groups, clauses, sentences, word order, proverbs, etc. should have approximately equal frequency, for the topic and register in question, in both the source and target languages.) Translation theory is concerned with minutiae (the meanings of semi-colons, italics, misprints) as well as generalities (presentation, the thread of thought underlying a piece), and both may be equally important in the context. Translation theory in action, translation theory used operationally for the purpose of reviewing all the options (in particular, sensitising the translator to those he had not been aware of) and then making the decisions in fact the teeth of the theory is a frame of reference for translation and translation criticism, relating first to complete texts, where it has most to say, then, in descending level, to paragraphs, sentences, clauses,  word groups (in particular, collocations), words -familiar alternative words, cultural and institutional terms, proper names, 1 non-equivalent words, neologisms and key conceptual terms morphemes and punctuation marks. Note that metaphor, perhaps the most significant translation problem, may occur at all levels from word to text, at which level it becomes an allegory or a fantasy. What translation theory does is, first, to identify and define a translation problem (no problem no translation theory!); second, to indicate all the factors that have to be taken into account in solving the problem; third, to list all the possible translation procedures; finally, to recommend the most suitable translation procedure, plus the appropriate translation. Translation theory is pointless and sterile if it does not arise from the problems of translation practice, from the need to stand back and reflect, to consider all the factors, within the text and outside it, before coming to a decision, I close this chapter by enumerating the new elements in translation nov.\ as opposed to, say, at the beginning of the century: (1) The emphasis on the readership and the setting, and therefore on naturalness, ease of understanding and an appropriate register, when these factors are appropriate. (2) Expansion of topics beyond the religious, the literary and the scientific to technology, trade, current events, publicity, propaganda, in fact to virtually every topic of writing. (3) Increase in variety of text formats, from books (including plays and poems) to articles, papers, contracts, treaties, laws, notices, instructions, advertisements,  10 PRINCIPLES (4) (5) (6) (7) publicity, recipes, letters, reports, business forms, documents, etc. These now vastly outnumber books, so it is difficult to calculate the number or the languages of translations on any large scale. Standardisation of terminology. The formation of translator teams and the recognition of the revisers role. The impact of linguistics, sociolinguistics and translation theory, which will.

Albert Camus The Outsider Meursault

Albert Camus The Outsider Meursault Statement of intent: This assignment is based on Albert Camus The Outsider. One of the classic examples of an existentialist novel, The Outsider tells the story of an unremarkable man, living a simple, bachelor existence in Algeria. He is unmoved by his mothers death, and a day after begins a love affair with Marie Cordona. He soon after becomes involved in a violent murder and is placed on trial. Because of his refusal to lie and give in to societys demands (pretending to feel grief and remorse), he eventually condemns himself and is put to death. In this assignment I wish to convey Marie Cordonas feelings about Meursault and her view of his case. Marie is a simple, uncomplicated girl who enjoys life, appears to fall in love easily, wants to marry Meursault and live a normal life. Though she is slightly shocked when Meursault tells her that his mother died only a day before their meeting at the pool, she does not rethink spending time with him or watching a comedy with him. Like Meursault, Marie takes pleasure in physical contact; she often kisses him and enjoys the act of sex. However, Meursaults affection for Marie is purely physical while her affection for him evokes a deeper sentimental and emotional attachment. At first she doesnt understand Meursaults character and is taken aback by his indifference of love: She asked me if I loved her. I told her that it didnt mean anything but that I didnt think so. She looked sad. When Meursault expresses the same attitude towards marriage, again she is confused However, though she may be disappointed, she never considers ending the relationship or does not rethink her desire to marry him and indeed, throughout the novel I believe she starts to gain an acceptance of his behaviour, an understanding perhaps. Her attraction towards him seems, in fact, to stem from the fact that she is intrigued by his persona, his strange behavior seems to be part of his appeal for her She mumbled that I was peculiar, that that was probably why she loved me but that one day I might disgust her for the very same reason. Marie remains loyal to Meursault when he is arrested and put on trial, she visits him in prison and writes him letters and then testifies in his favor during the court case. She remains faithful and hopeful and imagines a life once Meursault is let out: she was still smilingshe shouted again, Youll get out and well get married! Marie never expresses appall or anger towards Meursault or his actions, she never doubts that he is an innocent man and that the crime he committed does not reflect his true self: Marie burst into tears and said it wasnt like thatshe knew me and I hadnt done anything wrong However, because Marie stays hopeful throughout, she never reaches the understanding Meursault attains at the end. While Meursault realizes and accepts the indifference of the universe, Marie never understands the redemptive value of abandoning hope, and her hope is therefore shattered when Meursault is eventually put to death. For the purpose of this assignment, it has been imagined that there were some sort of funeral proceedings after Meursaults execution. After all, though his strange behaviour remained a mystery to most that surrounded him, many did not judge him and accepted him as he was, knowing that, despite his actions he was not an evil man, nor did he have a criminal mind. By assuming that there were funeral proceedings, a situation is created where a eulogy from the perspective of one of the people of Meursaults close entourage wouldve been spoken out. Marie, having been intimately involved with him and having been one of those who observed and tried to analyse him, seems to be an appropriate choice for this task. A eulogy should be personal; it shares happy memories, tells anecdotes and describes the persons character. It also aims to express the values that were important to the deceased, highlights accomplishments and career or educational merits. The aim of this assignment is therefore to do this from Maries point of view, about Meursault. The eulogy: I once asked Meursault if he loved me. It doesnt mean anything he replied, but I dont think so. One would naturally feel offended by such a response, and I wasat first. But I soon came to understand that this was Meursault. This was Meursault in his all his splendor and it is for this peculiar nature of his that I believe I was attracted to him, loved him even. I first met Meursault when I was working as a typist in the office where he worked. He had always struck me as handsome young man, charming and somewhat mysterious. We had connected and enjoyed each others company. However it was short lived as I soon found a job elsewhere and left the company. I had not seen him for several months when we bumped into each other at the bathing station at the port It is true that I wouldnt have thought for a single moment that his mother had died only a day earlier; we spent a wonderful afternoon swimming and enjoying the sun together, I was happy, he was happy, and we just felt so comfortable around each other that we engaged in a relationship that very day. I was slightly taken aback when he told me his mother had died the day before, and it didnt seem natural that he would he take me out to see a Fernandel film after such an event, but I must admit that I had soon forgotten about it. After all we were both just two young people, enjoying an easy life, a life that, for Meursault, in spite of everything had not really changed. So why were we to deprive ourselves? Meursault was an intelligent man, though not ambitious. He valued his simple yet exotic life, over a wealthier career opportunity in Paris. He enjoyed the simple pleasures in life; lazing on the beach, swimming in the sea, going to cinemas It is always something I loved about spending time with him, I always felt carefree, relaxed, beautiful. I could always be myself around him, he never judged or complained. Ill miss our beach excursions, our romantic nights to the cinema, and our playful adventures in the sea. Meursault was uninterested in grieving death, proposing marriage, loving even. But he had a passion for something I believe to be much more admirable. Honesty was what I valued most in him. He was an honest man, purely and sometimes painfully, and maybe he did not love me in the conventional sense of the word, but he was in love with something much greater, something our society today seems to value less and less; Meursault was stubbornly yet admirably in love with truth. I still remember visiting him at the prison; I was so full of hope and blind determination that when it would all be over, we would be married, and we would go swimming again, we would enjoy life together. Maybe I thought the jury would be able to see the man he really was, the man I knew, and would spare him. Yes, he did kill a man. Yes, he never showed grief for his mothers death. But he was no murderer. He was a criminal only to our societys rules and codes of conduct. Is it wrong not to pretend grief? Not to pretend remorse? Love? In this conventional society yes; pretending and lying would have saved Meursault. But he was true to himself, he refused to be a hypocrite and pretend to emotions he did not feel and for that I believe he cannot be blamed. Unfortunately it is for that reason that he was condemned and that he is no longer here with us today. But I hope that all of you gathered here now, think of him like I do, not as a murderer, not as a criminal, but as a man who, without any heroic pretensions, agreed to give his life for the truth. And for this I believe he deserves our respect and admiration. Meursault, je taime.

Essay on Okonkwo and Nwoye in Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart

Understanding Okonkwo and Nwoye in Achebe’s Things Fall Apart  Ã‚   Two passages from the story Things Fall Apart, by Chinua Achebe, provide the reader with a more profound understanding of Okonkwo, and his son Nwoye.   The two do not have a good relationship and it becomes worse as the story progresses.  Ã‚   Throughout the book the two become increasingly distant and it is apparent that Okonkwo is very disappointed in his son.   After the death of Ikemefuna, Nwoye begins to question many aspects of his life, especially religion.   As the Christian missionaries spend more time with the members of the village, Nwoye becomes interested in this new religion.   The first passage I have chosen discusses Nwoye’s feelings about Christianity.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"But there was a young lad who had been captivated.   His name was Nwoye,   Okonkwo’s first son.   It was not the mad logic of the Trinity that captivated him.  Ã‚   He did not understand it.   It was the poetry of the new religion, something felt in   the marrow.   The hymn about brothers who sat in the darkness and in fear seemed   to answer a vague and persistent question that haunted his young soul - the   question of the twins crying in the bush and the questions of Ikemefuna who was   killed.   He felt a relief within as the hymn poured into his parched soul.   The words   panting earth.   Nwoye’s callow mind was greatly puzzled (147).†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This passage shows the reader that Nwoye is extremely different from many members of his family and the other members of the village.   After Okonkwo learns that his son is interested in the new religion he is furious.   Okonkwo has always been disappointed in his son.   He believes that Nwoye is not as strong as a man of their clan should be.   When Okonkwo was Nwoye’s ... ... clansmen, his ancestors, and worst of all himself.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the beginning of the story, Okonkwo’s relationship with his son was strained.   Toward the end of the story, Nwoye has left is his family and will never see his father again.   The elders of the village put much emphasis on family life and helping fellow clansmen.   Okonkwo’s family life had increasingly gone downhill as the story progressed.   This book can be related to any family, even though it was written in a different time and place.   Family problems affect everyone and this story shows the reader how certain problems are dealt with.   I don’t believe, however, that Okonkwo’s family took care of their problems in a productive manner.   With better communication, Nwoye’s leaving and Okonkwo’s death may have been prevented.    Works Cited: Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Oxford: Heinemann, 1986.

The Detective Story Genre Essay -- Year 10 GCSE Coursework

In this essay I will be analysing: The Speckled Band, The Red-Headed League, and The Blue Carbuncle by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. I will be showing and comparing the plots of all three stories, the settings, the structure, and language used, characteristics of Holmes and Watson, and my own conclusion. All three stories were written in the 1890s.Crime writing was very popular in the 19th century, people found it to be very entertaining. It all started with a man called Edgar Allan Poe, he wrote the very first detective story â€Å"The Murders in the Rue Morgue†. Poe was a great inspiration to Doyle; he was the one who made Doyle what he is today. Doyle just loved Poe’s writing and he used Poe as a model when he set out to write detective stories himself. Detective stories then began in the middle nineteenth century when police forces organised in U.S., France and England. They were then published in magazines in instalments. The main plots of the three stories all have one thing in common and that is that they are all mysteries. The mystery for â€Å"The Speckled Band† is how and why Julia Stoner really died. The story starts with Holmes waking up Watson because a client (Helen Stoner) has arrived at 221B Baker Street early in the morning. Helen Stoner has a case for Holmes and she tells him that she is afraid because her sister Julia died in mysterious circumstances. Holmes and Watson travel to Stoke Moran, Surrey to solve how Julia had died and why there is a low whistle in middle of the night which had been the herald of Julia’s death. Holmes and Watson start to examine Julia’s bedroom and find that she was killed by a snake which Dr Roylott had been training for it to poison people to death. Dr Roylott is then ma... ...lmes methods, but as Holmes always points out he never observes. Overall I think that the 3 short stories: The Speckled Band, The Red-Headed League, and The Blue Carbuncle work as great detective stories because as you keep reading they seem to interest you more so you never out them down. The stories have become so great because most of the characters are based on real people who have a strong connection to the character. Between all three stories I liked The Speckled Band more because it seems more interesting and the case that needs to be solved is very mysterious due to the strange death. The title is even intriguing; it makes you want to read it. When you read up to the part where Holmes finds out who is killing everyone that just makes you ask yourself so many questions as to why that happened so its more exciting and you just have to keep reading.

The Problem with Evil. Essay -- essays research papers

Arevalo 1 Michael Arevalo Philosophy/Extra Credit 02-03-02 The Problem With Evil The Problem With Evil refers to the statement; "No evil happens to a good person in this life or after death". The question at hand refers to the statement being accurate or not. Depending on how you define the words; â€Å"good†, and â€Å"person†, this statement may be construed as inaccurate or accurate. We must first define the words â€Å"good†, and â€Å"person†. The American Heritage defines â€Å"good† as being; (1a) â€Å"Virtuous; Valid or True†. It also defines â€Å"person† as; (2a) â€Å"Self; the personality of a human being†. However the Dictionary also has these alternative definitions: good – (1b) â€Å"Genuine; Real†: person – (2b) â€Å"the living body of a human being†. If you are to believe definition (2a), that there is more to a person than the physical body, our statement in question could be considered accurate. The thought or notion to be â€Å"true†, and or the â€Å"personality of a human being† is a concept. These concepts are forever true or changeless (eternal). Our ability to become aware of these concepts may illustrate somet...

Crime Essay Outline Essay

Critically examine the methods used to measure crime in Australia. In your answer you should discuss the following: How are crime statistics collected, collated and used? What are the strengths and weaknesses of official statistics versus unofficial statistics and alternative methods? How might these weaknesses be overcome? Introduction: By measuring crime, accurate crime data can be used for access the effectiveness of public policies, including the measurement of crime trends and the evaluation of crime control initiatives (Weatherburn 2011). This essay will discuss how crime statistics be used in Australia, the variances between official and unofficial statistics and the solutions of the weaknesses of official statistic. The definitions of concepts: Official statistics- They are produced by government institutions such as police offence information systems and Australian Institute of Criminology. Unofficial statistics – They are produced by people and agencies that are not involved in the criminal justices system. The methods used to measure crime According to Addington (2010), the main sources of crime data are crimes report from police, victim surveys and self-report surveys. Police recorded crime statistic Easy to conduct Including information about the nature of the recorded crime, location, time, what weapons were used etc. (Weatherburn 2011). Regionally and nationally Reliable Police were trained under criminological background Police are experienced Victim surveys Measure the dark figure of crime Crimes reported to an interviewer by the victim Nationally Based on sample of address (Block, C. R., Block R. L. 1984) Six index offenses Rape, aggravated assault, robbery, burglary, larceny, and automobile theft (Decker 1977) Self-report surveys Rarely reported to police Examples are illegal drug use and tax evasion (Weatherburn 2011) The advantages Official statistics Administrative data such as data from state and Territory police forces, courts, hospitals, community services (Browyn 2004). Represent an official record of crime Up-to-date information (Browyn 2004). Can be used for comparative purposes and deduction of crime trend. The limitations Official statistics Not all crimes committed are detected Not all crimes committed are reported Attitudes about the potential effectiveness of police in handing matters (Browyn 2004). Who are involved in an incident (Browyn 2004). The possible implication for victims (Browyn 2004). Not all crimes reported to police are recorded Technical difficulties A lack of sufficiently precise definitions for the phenomena to be measured (Security Publique Quebec 1993). A lack of uniformity or rigour in administrative practices used to compile the date (Security Publique Quebec 1993). Statistics only reflect the visible face of crime and do not make it possible to measure all the crimes perpetrated (Security Publique Quebec 1993). Selective use of data The lag in reporting Solutions Ensure independence (UK statistics Authority 2010) Public confidence as a target A augment that statistics needed to be at heart of policy-making and performance management Reinforce supervision on media The media plays an important role in forming people’s views on official statists (UK statistics Authority 2010). ‘The misreporting and under –reporting apparently endemic in current statistic has led to their widespread devaluation’ (Skogan 1975) Prevent from abuse of official statistics Conclusion Official statistics are more credible but need to overcome their weaknesses. There are two possible options which are ensuring independence and reinforcing supervision on media can be considered as solutions in this paper. References: Block, Carolyn R. , Block, Richard L. (1984) ‘Crime definition, crime measurement, and Victim Surveys’, Journal of Social issues, Vol. 40, No.1, pp 137-160 Browyn, H. (2004) ‘measuring crime in Australia’, crime in the community, chapter 4, pp 64-78 Decker, Scott H. (1977) ‘Official crime rates and victim surveys: an empirical comparison’, Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 5, pp 47-54 Lynn A. Addington (2010) ‘Measuring Crime’, Oxford Available from Oxford Bibliographies [30 March 2014] Security Publique Quebec (1993) ‘Partners in Crime Prevention: For a Safer Quebec Report of the Task Force on crime prevention’ Skogan, W. G. (1975) ‘Measurement problems in official and survey crime rates’, Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol3, pp17-32 UK statistics Authority (2010) ‘Overcoming Barriers to Trust in: Crime Statistics: England and Wales’, Monitoring report 5 Weatherburn, D. (2011) ‘Uses and ab uses of crime statistics’ Crime and Justice Bulletin, no. 153